References

1

Forrest, S. and T. Jones (1994). Modeling complex adaptive systems with Echo. pp. 3-21 in R.J. Stonier and X.H. Yu, eds. Complex Systems: Mechanisms of Adaptation. IOS Press, Amsterdam.

2

Hairston, N. G., Jr., and N. G. Hairston, Sr. (1993). Cause-effect relationships in energy flow, trophic structure, and interspecific interactions. American Naturalist 142:379-411.

3

Holland, J. H. (1992). Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems. MIT Press, Cambridge.

4

Holland, J. H. (1994). Echoing emergence: objectives, rough definitions and formulations for ECHO-class models. In Complexity: Metaphors, Models, and Reality. (G.A. Cowan, D. Pines and D. Meltzer eds.), pp. 309-42, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. New York.

5

Holland, J. H. (1995). Hidden Order: How Adaptation Builds Complexity. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., New York.

6

Judson, O.P. (1994). The rise of the individual-based model in ecology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 9:9-14.

7

Langton, C., N. Minar, R. Burkhart, and M. Askenazi (1995-96). The Swarm simulation system. http://www.santafe.edu/projects/swarm, Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe.

8

Levin, S.A. (1992). The problem of pattern and scale in ecology. Ecology 73b:1943-1967.

9

Lindgren, K. and M. G. Nordahl (1994). Cooperation and community structure in artificial ecosystems. Artificial Life 1:15-37.

10

McCauley, E., W. G. Wilson, and A. M. De Roos (1993). Dynamics of age-structured and spatially structured predator-prey interactions: individual-based models and population-level formulations. American Naturalist 142:412-442.

11

Niklas, K.J. (1994). Plant Allometry: The Scaling of Form and Process. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

12

Rechenberg, I. (1994). Evolutionsstrategie '94. Frommann-hozboog Verlag, Stuttgart, Germany.

13

Schmidt-Nielsen, K. (1984). Scaling: Why is Animal Size So Important? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

14

Schmitz, O.J. (1993). Trophic exploitation in grassland food chains: simple models and a field experiment. Oecologia 93:327-335.

15

Schmitz, O.J. and G. Booth. (1996). Modeling food web complexity: the consequence of individual-based spatially explicit behavioral ecology on trophic interactions. Evolutionary Ecology. In press.

16

Schmitz, O.J., J.R. Vaisnys, and G. Booth (1997). Linearity in the aggregate behavior of a complex individual-based spatially-explicit ecological simulator. In preparation, available as a CCE pre-print. CCE, Yale Institute for Biospheric Studies, New Haven.

17

Wagner, G.P. Evolvability on Euclidean Landscapes: Evolution Strategy (ES). Unpublished lecture notes from a seminar in Computational Ecology, Yale University, 1996.